Angos Grammar

= Table of Contents = I. Phonology

1. Orthography and Pronunciation

2. Diphthongs

3. Syllable Structures

4. Phonaesthetics

II. Parts of Speech and Morphology

1. Part of Speech Classifiers

2. Natuli and Om-sanati

3. Nouns

4. Pronouns

5. Verbs

6. Adjectives and Adverbs

7. Particles

Tense Particles

Polarity

Existential Particle

Conjunctions

Prepositions

8. Numbers

III. Syntax

1. Word Order

2. Indirect Objects

3. Passive Voice

4. Comparative and Superlative

6. Multiple Modifiers

7. Prepositional Phrases

8. Relative Clauses

9. Forming Questions

IV. Determiner Radicals

V. Compounding

VI. Modality

VII. Names

IPA for Angos

= I. Phonology =

1. Orthography and Pronunciation
Angos uses the Latin script with no diacritics. The chart below shows the majuscule and minuscule letters with their corresponding IPA symbol and an example sound in English (for optional/alternate pronunciations of sounds, see IPA for Angos at the bottom of the page). The use of majuscule letters is not obligatory at the beginning of a sentence or for proper nouns, but they may be used for distinction or emphasis if needed. The name of each consonant ends in "e", and the name of each vowel is just the vowel's sound (a, be ce, de, e, fe, ge...)

When writing Angos, capitalization is not required.

2. Diphthongs
Diphthongs are two vowel sounds that merge into one syllable. In Angos, diphthongs can occur as follows: au (word-final), aw [aw, aʊ] (English: cow) eu (final), ew [ew, ɛʊ] (no English equivalent) ou (final), ow [ow, oʊ] (English: slow) ai/ae (final), ay [aj, aɪ] (English: tie) ei (final), ey [ej, ɛɪ] (English: day) oi/oe (final), oy [oj, oɪ] (English: boy)

3. Syllable Structures
The following is a schematic of the possible syllable structures in Angos. C = consonant V = vowel S = semivowel (w or y) (C)(S)V(S)(C) Each syllable requires a vowel nucleus. You may have VSC (as in ayn) or SV (as in wo), but clusters such as VCS (e.g. ‘adw’) or SSV (e.g. ‘wya’) would not be allowable structures. A syllable combination of CV or CSV is preferred in multi-syllabic roots (e.g. moswo “moose” would be spoken as mo-swo instead of mos-wo).

4. Phonaesthetics
Phonaesthetics is the study of how languages sound, whether they are euphonic (pleasant) or cacaphonic (unpleasant). The following are some guidelines for keeping Angos euphonic. • The consonant [l] should not be adjacent to another consonant; a semivowel or vowel should precede/follow it. • Stress is on the last syllable of the root (the penultimate syllable of an inflected word). Thus a compound word will have more than one stress point. aksalo aksal-omo • Root-initial vowels have an unmarked glottal stop [ʔ] at the syllable onset ([ʔ] being the stopping sound in English “uh-oh”). This is a natural occurrence in many languages, including English, but it’s important to be aware of when putting roots together. This sound is treated as a consonant. • Assimilation (the combining of adjacent sounds) does not occur at word boundaries. For compound words, the roots must be looked at individually. If they do not belong in any of the allowable syllable structures, then an [e] is placed at the syllable boundary. Examples of [e] usage: aksal-pulofo – [ʔak.`sa.le.pu.`lo.fo] “author” yang-sesono – [`jan.ge.se.`so.no] “Summer” aksal-ipo – [ʔak.`sa.le.`ʔi.po] “note, letter” Root-initial vowels will always have [ʔ]: omo – [`ʔo.mo] “person” mek-omo – [`mek.`ʔo.mo] “engineer, director” dawa-omo – [da.`wa.`ʔo.mo] “doctor” boka-omo – [bo.`ka.`ʔo.mo] “actor/actress” • Consonant gemination (elongation) may occur if the boundaries are identical: ays-sesono – [`ays:e`so.no]. This can be seen in English at the boundaries of two words with the same consonant sound (ex. “this sock”). Similarly, if two vowels are beside each other, the sound may be elongated: bisaa – [bi.`sa:]. Note that the stress in this word still falls on the penultimate written vowel.

= II. Parts of Speech and Morphology =

1. Part of Speech Classifiers
In Angos, every root is based on a noun. This is to regulate derivations and is based on the idea that nouns are the most stable concepts cross-linguistically compared to verbs or adjectives. For example, most languages have the same concept of “dog” (the friendly, barking mammal), compared to a verb like “to be” (which doesn’t even exist in some languages). Angos uses a system of letter classifiers affixed to the root to designate a word’s part of speech in a sentence. Note that even though roots are already based on nouns, there is still a noun vowel classifier for the purpose of euphony. Nouns end in o Verbs end in a Adjectives end in i Adverbs end in u Here is an example of the root ot with all vowel classifiers and various meanings. oto – fire ota – burn, set fire to oti – hot, flame-like otu – hotly, in a flame-like way

2. Natuli and Om-sanati
Words are split into two aspects: natuli (natural) and om-sanati (constructed). The natural aspect is unmarked. The constructed aspect is marked with –s after the initial vowel classifier, and signifies that the root is man-made. The use of this distinction is to show a shared characteristic between the words, such as look or function. The meaning of the constructed aspects depends on context in which it is used. leiso (cave, canopy) vs. leisos (house, bunker) fao (tree) vs. faos (branched diagram, plastic tree) ayso (ice) vs. aysos (ice cube, shaved ice)

3. Nouns
Nouns in Angos are static; they do not change for definitiveness, number, or grammatical case. leisos a/the house le leisos houses (where le signals plurality) de leisos to a/the house As shown above, articles (a/an, the) are not present in Angos. Instead, determiners (this, that, some, any, etc.) are used to indicate definitiveness.

4. Pronouns
Following the use of the noun ending –o and the plural particle le, pronouns have the following configuration: wo – I, me le wo – we, us to – you le to – you all lo – he/she/it, him, her le lo – they, them Although there is no obligatory gender assignment, the following roots can be compounded with pronouns to denote gender: na – male na-omo – man ni – female ni-omo – woman kwi – non-binary kwi-omo – genderqueer individual The generic pronoun is expressed with the word omo “person”: omo bisaa finda lo ine buk-oyos One can find him in the library Possessive pronouns are formed be replacing the noun classifier o with the adjective classifier i. wi – my, mine le wi – our, ours ti – your, yours le ti – your, yours li – his, hers, its le li – their, theirs

5. Verbs
Because there are no inherent verb roots in Angos, the meaning of a word with the verb ending is dependent on the context of the noun root used. For example, ota, from the root ot- meaning "fire", does not inherently mean "burn". It is instead any action related to the use of "fire" in context. fao ota The tree is burning wo ota momos I light the candle (in this sense, applying fire to something) Verbs do not conjugate for person, number, tense, aspect, or mood. wo ala I eat / I am eating. wo ala tofao I eat/I am eating an apple. All verbs in Angos are ambitransitive; their meanings can change depending on the presence of an object. If an object is present, the verb will act transitively. If there is no object, the verb is intransitive, but the action is not directed back to the subject (see Reflexivity below). wo ansa I am talking wo ansa angos I speak Angos wo sona I sleep wo sona lo I cause it to sleep (also see Modality for causatives) Reflexivity (when an action is directed back to the subject) can be expressed or emphasized with the adverb idu: wo iska I collide (with something, habitually) wo idu iska I hit myself

6. Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives describe a shared quality or possession. The shared qualities may vary depending on context. For example, oti (from the root ot “fire”) could mean “hot”, “flame-like”, “red-orange”, or even “quick-spreading”, depending on context. Adjectives may take the function of nouns, making whatever they modify understood in context: to desa ki? Which [thing] do you want? wo desa lafi I want the small [one] Adverbs describe the manner in which something is done. They are derived in the same way as adjectives, but may only modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

7. Particles
"Particles" is a catch-all category that includes prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, some adverbs, and interjections. All these words end in -e and, if applicable, precede whatever they modify.

Tense Particles
The present tense is unmarked. The general past is indicated by the particle me. The general future is indicated by ke. These particles are adverbial, preceding the verb. wo ala I eat wo me ala I ate wo ke ala I will eat

Polarity
The particle se is used to denote positivity or affirmation, while nae signals negation. se, wo me ine leisos Yes, I was in the house se, wo se me ine leisos Yes, I was in the house nae, wo nae me ine leisos No, I was not in the house

Existential Particle
The existential particle tae is a special case, as it functions like a verb. The closest English translation is “there is” or “there are”. It may be accompanied by tense particles. tae tin tofao There are three apples me tae tin tofao There were three apples ke tae tin tofao There will be three apples This particle is also used to express possession. de wo, tae mao At me, there is a cat (I have a cat)

Conjunctions
Conjunctions link together two clauses and are split into two sub-groups: coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating conjunctions may be used to link words or clauses. Between the contents of lists, the conjunction ye is still obligatory if the contents are three or more. to maya de tofao ye nesteos You buy an apple and a drink de to, tae mao ye tesemo ye ikano You have a cat, a dog, and a fish The coordinating conjunction oe is also obligatory between each listed item. to bisaa maya de tofao oe nesteos oe nano You can buy an apple, a drink, or bread Subordinating conjunctions require that the following clause be dependent on another clause. Note that the duplication of the verb in the subordinate clause is not required. wo ke ala isue wo talua (ala) I will eat because I must (eat) wo ke ala be wo talua (ala) I will eat if I must (eat) The option also exists to front the dependent clause and include the adverb sayu (therefore) in the following independent clause: isue wo talua, wo sayu ke ala Because I have to, I will therefore eat be wo talua, wo sayu ke ala If I have to, I will therefore eat

Prepositions
Prepositions link words in a sentence with a spatial or temporal relationship. Prepositions are unique in that they may be inflected with a vowel classifier to denote a part of speech related to the preposition: nife – near nifeo – the near one nifea – go near, put near nifei – nearby nifeu – nearly, almost Temporal prepositions are distinguished from spatial prepositions with the prefix hi-: fe – from hife – since ante – in front of hiante – until, before The prepositions mwe and tongwe both mean “with”, but mwe is used strictly with association, while tongwe is used for instrumental purposes. wo gia mwe wi akio I walk with my friend wo aksala tongwe ink-olos I write with a pen

8. Numbers
All numbers in Angos end in -n, but may also be inflected further with part-of-speech classifiers. ayn - one (of something) ayno - the only one ayna - do something singularly/one at a time ayni/aynu - lone, only 0 - nun 1 - ayn 2 - don 3 - tin 4 - kan 5 - keyn 6 - sen 7 - sun 16 8 - okon 9 - nowan 10 - den 11 - den-ayn 12 - den-don 20 - don-den 21 - don-den-ayn 100 - (ayn) syen 121 - ayn-syen-don-den-ayn 1000 - (ayn) syon 1121 - ayn-syon-ayn-syen-don-den-ayn 10,000 - den-syon 100,000 – (ayn) syen-syon million - eseon billion - ospen trillion - ohanen quadrillion – lanun infinity - ikwin Ordinality is expressed with the root sol (series) compounded to the number, then with the number being inflected. These may be abbreviated in the format: s + # + (classifier) wo sol-tino I am the third one wo sol-doni omo I am the second person wo ke s1u ala I will eat first wo s2o I am the second one

= III. Syntax =

1. Word Order
Angos uses Subject-Verb-Object word order, with modifiers preceding what they modify. mao ala nesumo [The] cat eats [the] mouse bali mao gatiu ala lafi nesumo [The] big cat quickly eats [the] small mouse For modal verbs such as bisaa "can" or desa "want", the secondary verb (if there is one), is placed after the modal. lo bisaa aksala He/She can write Descriptors will still precede each of the verbs. lo bisaa gatiu aksala He/She can write quickly

2. Indirect Objects
Indirect object phrases are formed with the preposition de, and are placed after the direct object if applicable. wo fema de le lo I teach them (something) wo fema espan-ango de le lo I teach them Spanish

3. Passive Voice
The passive voice in Angos is formed with the particle te, placed immediately in front of the verb. kalimo te aksala dafe ipos [The] word is written on [the] paper windawgos me te tayla fe wo [The] window was broken by me

4. Comparative and Superlative
The comparative particles in Angos are sele for augmentative and naele for diminutive, with the particle de linking the comparison to another noun. These particles may also be used to mean “more of” or “less of” something, respectively. wo sele cahai I am taller wo naele cahai de to I am not as tall as you wi cahao balansi de ti I am as tall as you (lit. my height is equal to yours) wo kala naele alo I want less food The superlative particles are sefe and naefe, rendered in the same manner as above. wo naefe cahai I am the least tall wo sefe cahai de le to I am the tallest (out of you all) wo kala sefe alo I want the most food

6. Multiple Modifiers
This is a list of priorities in case there is more than one modifier: Noun Modifiers: le + demonstrative + adjective + noun fi ni-omo this woman seyni ni-omo old woman fi seyni ni-omo this old woman le fi seyni ni-omo these old women When using possessive pronouns (wi, ti, li, etc.), the order changes slightly, in that the possessive pronoun (although an adjective) will precede all other modifiers. This is to prevent confusion with the plural possessive pronouns (le wi, le ti, le li): wi sang-ami bukos my red book wi le sang-ami bukos my red books le wi sang-ami bukos our red book le wi le sang-ami bukos our red books Verb Modifiers: (se, nae) + adverbs + (me, ke) + te + verb kalimo te aksala The word is written kalimo me te aksala The word was written kalimo gatiu me te aksala The word was written quickly kalimo nae gatiu me te aksala The word was not written quickly

7. Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional phrases are formed with a preposition, modifiers of the object, then the object(s) of the preposition. Prepositional phrases may only begin or end a sentence. If placed at the beginning, the prepositional phrase may be separated from the main clause by a comma. ine leisos, mao ala nesumo In the house, the cat eats the mouse mao ala nesumo ine leisos The cat eats the mouse in the house The presence of a preposition can influence the meaning of the verb if context is unclear. wo ansa mwe to I talk to you/I talk with you wo ansa de to I tell you

8. Relative Clauses
Unlike some languages, Angos does not use pronouns to introduce a relative clause. Instead, the particle lae is used. na-omo lae wo me wia The man who I saw oyo lae me cea The place where it happened leisos lae (lis) windawgos tayli The house whose (its) windows are broken

9. Forming Questions
Questions can be formed with the polar question particle ce or an interrogative determiner (who, what, when, etc.). Ce demands a yes/no answer: ce lo hefo? Is it an animal? ce to kala gi-gola? Do you like to play soccer? An interrogative determiner demands an answer that matches its function in the sentence. lo ki omo? Who is it? ("It [is] what person") lo bali omo It is a big person to gia de semyao hie ki ceo? When are you going home? wo gia de semyao hie post-hio I'm going home tomorrow

= IV. Determiner Radicals = Angos uses a series of radicals to construct determiners by pairing them with vowel classifiers. These determiners are syntactically bound to their classifiers (e.g. ku, like other adverbs, can only be placed before a verb or adjective). Other determiners, such as time, place, person, and reason, can be formed with adjective radicals.

= V. Compounding = Angos employs heavy use of endocentric compounding, in which the head of the compound modifies the following root. Compounds are formed by root junction, with a dash (-) separating each root. The root at the end of the compound is the focus, and is the one that inflects for part-of-speech. Compound words may have as many roots necessary to form the idea, though the majority of compounds are between two and three roots in length. tesem-leisos dog house With the root tesem (dog) + leis (shelter) + constructed noun ending os. leis is the focus of the compound, and tesem describes the purpose or quality of the following root. In this context, it is a man-made shelter for a dog. yel-hay-oyos airport yel (sky) + hay (vessel) + oy (place) + os. Air describes vessel (airplane), and air vessel describes the place. This gives rise to several category roots: oyo – a place where one finds something fa-oyo = tree place = forest kon-oyos = study place = school buk-oyos = book place = library omo – a person who works with something mek-omo = system person = engineer lag-omo = law person = lawyer kon-omo = study person = student amo – the color of something kafe-amo = coffee color = brown fa-amo = tree color = brown yel-amo = sky color = light blue eyfo – an area or region of something bal-eyfo = mountain region = mountain range lahol-eyfo = drought region = desert aluk-eyfo = hierarchy region = state If two compounded roots break a phonological rule, an unmarked vowel sound [e] or [ɛ] should be placed between the roots to maintain phonaesthetics. Thus yel-hay (airplane) in the previous example would be rendered phonetically as [`je.le.`haj], as the consonant l should be succeeded by a vowel or semivowel.

= VI. Modality = Grammatical mood (how one expresses opinions, assertions, or needs) in Angos is unmarked, but some verbs indicate different modal aspects. When using a subordinate noun clause, a comma is placed after the verb. Necessity: wo talua gia I must go wo talua alo I need food wo talua, to maya de fo I need you to buy this Desire: wo desa gia I want to go wo desa, to ala I want you to eat Ability and Permission: wo bisaa gia I can/may go Hope: wo hopa gia I hope to go wo hopa, to gia I hope that you go Belief: wo eska, fo istini I believe that this is true Knowledge: wo noa, lo me gia I know that he/she left Cause: wo koda, to gia I cause/allow you to go Because of the strict word order rules in Angos, cause can be expressed in a normal sentence (without koda) by the presence of an object. wo sona “I sleep” can change to wo sona lo “I cause him/her to sleep”. Because of the word order, you know that lo has to be receiving the action of sona. In this context, it is a causative action. Evidentiality may be expressed with the adverbs bewisu (evidently, obviously), and bisau (uncertainly, possibly). lo bewisu me gatia He/she obviously ran lo bisau me gatia He/she probably ran Commands are simply the verb form without a subject. Negative commands will have nae before them. ala! Eat! nae ala! Don’t eat! The deontic adverbial particles sefame or naefame indicate how the world should or should not be, respectively. le wo sefame ala We should eat to naefame ala You should not eat sefame gia Let’s go

= VII. Names = Proper nouns, names of people or places, are treated like any other roots. They can be fully inflected as shown below: cono - John cona - do something associated with John coni - John’s; like John conu - like John does beycingo - Beijing beycinga - do something associated with Beijing beycingi - Beijing’s; like Beijing beycingu - like Beijing does The use of these inflections is mostly stylistic, to replace prepositions or to adjust rhyme and meter. It is recommended that context be clear if these inflections are used. wo gia de londono ≈ wo londona I go to London For transcribing names, they should be within the acceptable phonological structures for Angos. The name in its language of origin is preferred (ex. Nippon over Japan) Any sound that does not occur in Angos should be given the closest approximation.

= IPA for Angos =